🧬 Mendelian inheritance
Autosomal dominant (AD): affected parent → 50% risk (e.g., NF1, achondroplasia). Autosomal recessive (AR): carrier parents, 25% risk (CF, PKU). X‑linked recessive (XL): males affected, females carriers (DMD, hemophilia).
🧬 Chromosomal disorders
Numerical: trisomy 21 (Down), 18 (Edwards), 13 (Patau), Turner (45,X), Klinefelter (47,XXY). Structural: deletions (22q11, 7q11.23 – Williams), duplications, translocations. Detected by karyotype, FISH, CMA.
🧬 Imprinting & uniparental disomy (UPD)
Imprinted genes: Prader‑Willi (paternal deletion), Angelman (maternal deletion). UPD when both homologues from one parent.
🧬 Mitochondrial disorders
Maternal inheritance (mtDNA). Heteroplasmy. Examples: MELAS, MERRF, Leigh syndrome. Variable expression.
🔬 Genetic testing
Karyotype (numerical/structural >5‑10 Mb). FISH (targeted). Chromosomal microarray (CMA) – copy number variants (deletions/duplications). Next‑generation sequencing (NGS) – gene panels, exome, genome.
🧑⚕️ Dysmorphology & genetic counseling
Dysmorphology: systematic evaluation of minor anomalies, patterns. Syndrome diagnosis vs association/sequence. Genetic counseling: recurrence risk, testing options, prenatal diagnosis, psychosocial support.